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''This article was written in 2007 and has been partially updated in 2010 and 2012. Please feel free to update it further.'' Water supply and sanitation in Indonesia is characterized by poor levels of access and service quality. Over 40 million people lack access to an improved water source and more than 110 million of the country’s 240 million population has no access to improved sanitation.〔 With only 2.3% access to sewerage in urban areas is one of the lowest in the world among middle-income countries. Pollution is widespread on Bali and Java. Women in Jakarta report spending US$ 11 per month on boiling water, implying a significant burden for the poor. The estimated level of public investment of only US$2 per capita a year in 2005 was insufficient to expand services significantly and to properly maintain assets. Furthermore, policy responsibilities are fragmented between different Ministries. Since decentralization was introduced in Indonesia in 2001 local governments (districts) have gained responsibility for water supply and sanitation. However, this has so far not translated into an improvement of access or service quality, mainly because devolution of responsibilities has not been followed by adequate fund channeling mechanisms to carry out this responsibility. Local utilities remain weak. The provision of clean drinking water has unfortunately not yet been taken up as a development priority, particularly at the provincial government level.〔UNICEF:(UNICEF Indonesia-Overview-Water & Environmental Sanitation ). Retrieved February 12, 2012.〕 The lack of access to clean water and sanitation remains a serious challenge, especially in slums and rural areas. This is a major concern because lack of clean water reduces the level of hygiene in the communities and it also raises the probability of people contracting skin diseases or other waterborne illnesses. A failure to aggressively promote behavioural change, particularly among low-income families and slum dwellers, has further worsened the health impact of Indonesia’s water and sanitation situation.〔 == Water resources and use == Indonesia has over 5,590 rivers, most of them short and steep. Because of high rainfall intensities most rivers carry large quantities of sediment.〔 Average rainfall is above 2,000 mm on most islands, except for the Lesser Sunda Islands where it is 1,500 mm.〔FAO Aquastat:(Indonesia ), version 1999, retrieved on October 17, 2010〕 80% of rain falls during the rainy season (October to April). While water resources are quite abundant in Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Maluku and Irian, water shortages occur during the dry season in parts of Java, Bali and the Lesser Sunda Islands. In particular in Java, the dry season flows are inadequate to meet the demand, leading to irrigation shortages.〔 Irrigation accounts for 93% of water use.〔 The total storage capacity amounts to only 5% to 6% of the river flows. Construction of reservoirs is constrained by lack of good reservoir sites, high density of population at possible reservoir sites and expected short reservoir lifetimes due to siltation. Groundwater potential in Indonesia is very limited. However, much of the eastern islands depend on groundwater because of surface water scarcity.〔 Groundwater overexploitation occurs in heavily populated coastal areas of Java, including in Jakarta and Semarang. In Jakarta it has caused seawater intrusion up to 10 km from the coast and land subsidence at a rate of 2–34 cm/year in east Jakarta.〔 In Semarang land subsidence occurs at a rate of 9 cm/year.〔 Water utilities abstract water from rivers and lakes (60%), springs (25%) and groundwater (15%). For example, the main water source for Jakarta is the Jatiluhur Dam on the Citarum River 70 km southeast of the city. For those who are self-supplied or receive water from community-based organizations, shallow groundwater and springs are by far the main sources of water on most islands. On Sumatra and Irian, however, rainwater harvesting is also an important water source.〔Hendrayanto, Bogor Agricultural University:(Watershed and Water Resources Management in Indonesia: AnOverview of Forest Degradation and Present Situation of Water Resources Supply and Efficient Utilization for Human Survival and Bioproduction ), 2004, p. 7-8, quoting BPS-Statistic Indonesia figures for 2002, retrieved on October 17, 2010〕 Pollution. Domestic sewage, industrial effluents, agricultural runoff, and mismanaged solid waste are polluting surface and groundwater, especially in Java. Indonesia ranks among the worst countries in Asia in sewerage and sanitation coverage. Few Indonesian cities possess even minimal sanitation systems. The absence of an established sanitation network forces many households to rely upon private septic tanks or to dispose of their waste directly into rivers and canals. The commonality of the latter practice, together with the prevalence of polluted shallow wells used for drinking water supply in urban areas, has led to repeated epidemics of gastrointestinal infections.〔World Bank:(Indonesia Environment Monitor 2003, Special focus: Reducing pollution ), p. 20-32, retrieved on October 17, 2010〕 Domestic Waste. According to Water Environment Partnership in Asia (WEPA), only 42.8 percent from 51,372,661 houses in Indonesia have domestic waste treatment. More than half of households dispose their domestic waste directly to the river body.〔WEPA:(State of Water Environmental Issues in Indonesia ). Retrieved on February 24, 2012〕 Data from the World Bank shows that in 2008, only 52% of Indonesian population has an adequate access to excreta disposal facilities. Such facilities are important as they can help to minimize human, animal, and insect contact with excreta, thereby increasing the hygiene level and enhancing the living conditions for the slum-dwellers. Without proper construction and maintenance of these facilities, domestic wastes are disposed ineffectively and increases the rate of water resources degradation.〔The World Bank:(Improved sanitation facilities (% of population with access) ). Retrieved on February 24, 2012〕 Industrial Waste. Industrial activities wastes such as small-scale industries, agriculture, textile, pulp and paper, petrochemical, mining and oil and gas also contribute to the degradation of water quality in Indonesia. Water quality in locations near to the mining areas is potentially contaminated by heavy metal such as mercury (Hg). According to WEPA, some level of mercury (Hg) concentration has been detected at 9 out of 16 sampling points and the highest level of dissolved mercury in one of the area reach 2.78 ug/l.〔 Therefore, the result of water quality monitoring in 30 rivers〔 in Indonesia indicates that most of river water quality do not meet water criteria class 1, i.e. water that can be used for standard water, drinking water, and or other usage that requires the same water quality with such usage, due to pollution by domestic and industrial wastes (drinking water raw based on Government Regulation Number 82, 2001, Water Quality Management and Wastewater Controlling).〔MOHA-SEMAC:(GOVERNMENT REGULATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA NUMBER: 82 OF 2001 REGARDING WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT AND WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ). p.4-5. Retrieved on February 24, 2012〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Water supply and sanitation in Indonesia」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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